This scoping study provides valuable insights into the status of organic fertilisers and biofertilisers
(OFBF) production and marketing in 12 selected African countries. The study specifically focusses on
the (potential of) off-farm production and marketing of OFBF; on-farm nutrient recycling (e.g. use of
manure, compost) is explicitly not considered. Data and information were gathered through a review
of academic literature, websites, reports and public databases. In addition, a total of 89 key informant
interviews were conducted. Findings will contribute to recommendations for policy development on
soil health and crop yield, including the formulation of strategies and programs in crucial areas such as
research, production and technology, value chain development, the economy, markets, and capacity
development. However, this study cannot claim to be exhaustive as the findings are mainly based on
the knowledge and expertise of the interviewees. Therefore, further country-specific analysis is
necessary to provide a comprehensive and in-depth understanding of OFBF.
1. Current state of organic and biofertilisers production
Organic fertilisers
This study reveals that organic fertiliser use is in its early stages across 12 African countries. South
Africa stands out with its 2013 National Organic Waste Composting Strategy, with some communities
diverting up to 50% of organic waste. Nigeria has a high production capacity (500 000 t/year), while
Egypt harbors one of the single largest producer of organic fertilisers (120 000 t/year). The total off-
farm production is around one million t/year across the 12 countries, varying by country.
Four main waste streams (household and green waste, market waste, human waste, and agricultural
by-products) are processed into compost, and in some cases towards bioslurry. However, recycling is
hindered by lacking waste segregation at source. Waste collection challenges persist, limiting overall
organic fertiliser production. Market waste sometimes competes as animal feed, while collection of
human waste is limited.
Non-source segregated waste composts have generally low nutrient contents (below 1% N, P, K).
Higher values (1-3% N, 1-2% P, 1-3% K) result from waste sorting, biodigesters, use of black soldier
flies, human waste or vermicomposting. Some composts are enhanced with chicken manure, mineral
fertiliser or nitrogen-rich plant materials. Prices for inorganic and organic fertilisers vary widely (35 to
100 Euro / 50 kg and 0.72 to 65 Euro / 50 kg).
Biofertilisers
Biofertilisers stimulate plant nutrition processes and can improve crop yield, specifically in dry and
tropical climates. While biofertilisers have seen greater development in other continents, notably Latin
America and India, their production remains limited in the majority of the 12 countries of this scoping
study. Most of the biofertilisers marketed in SSA are imported and not always adapted to local
conditions. Various studies have reported substantial quality issues among marketed biofertiliser
products.
The most advanced market in Africa for biofertilisers and producers can be found in South Africa and
Egypt. Apart from them, Kenya, Malawi, and Zimbabwe seem to exhibit a more “advanced” level of
production and usage, primarily relying on rhizobia-based products. In contrast, Central and West
Africa are the least developed regions in terms of production and usage. In places where they are used
successfully such as in Egypt and Malawi (rhizobia), benefits in terms of agricultural production are
reported.
1
2. Current state of the demand and use of organic and biofertilisers
The demand for organic as well as biofertilisers depends on factors like quality control, improved
product descriptions, advisory service, training and research on soil health impact. These factors
impact consumer trust and demand – among others.
Organic fertilisers
Market development for organic fertilisers has been positive in various countries especially with recent
disruptions in the global (mineral) fertiliser market. Farmers, influenced by familiarity with mineral
fertilisers, hesitate to adopt organic fertilisers due to concerns about increased workload and
perceived lower short-term impact on crop yield.
Companies often offer OFBF for free initially, providing training and demonstrations to build trust.
Demand mainly centers around compost from plant residues. However, demand trends vary across
countries. Long-term investments in soil health through organic fertilisers face barriers in regions with
low land tenure security or high land rental rates.
Barriers to compost use include limited transport access, lack of demonstrations, insufficient advisory
services, and delayed nutrient availability. Compost availability is restricted by limited access to
materials, market competition for residues, and transport costs. Demand for compost from human
excreta can be limited due to cultural barriers and lack of quality control. However, human excreta or
sewage sludge are in high demand in some regions due to limited availability of inorganic fertilisers.
Compost is recommended for various crops, with arable crops commonly using it for root crops. Liquid
organic fertilisers (bio-slurry) face transport challenges and varying opinions on their effectiveness.
Biochar’s production and demand vary across countries, with skepticism about its exclusive marketing
due to a lack of knowledge about its benefits. Some success has been observed when biochar is
combined with compost or other amendments. Further investigation is needed to determine the
economic feasibility of biochar production.
Biofertilisers
Biofertilisers are not widely promoted by governments and while some advisory services specialise in
them, the majority do not value these products, except for rhizobia, which is more widely recognised
than other biofertilisers. Across the 12 countries, about 25 companies producing biofertilisers have
been identified. In the case of rhizobia, increasing demand has been reported, as it can significantly
increase nitrogen fixation and grain yield. Quality issues and low pH values of soils limit the efficacy of
rhizobia. The demand for and use of mycorrhizal fungi are very limited, with research stations being
the main drivers of demand rather than farmers. Other micro-organism-based products, such as
effective micro-organisms and bokashi, are primarily used by organic farmers (South Africa), although
demand is not very high. In general, the market for biofertilisers is growing worldwide. The need for
more environmentally friendly technologies and the growth of the market for certified organic
products are the main drivers as such products are promoted for organic farming.
3. Potential supply of organic matter and macronutrients to produce organic fertilisers
Domestic off-farm production of organic fertilisers has potential for development, aiding nutrient and
organic matter recycling in agriculture, especially through combined utilisation of household waste,
human waste, and agricultural by-products.
There is great potential for a (re)circulation of organic matter and its nutrients (resource). The recycling
of organic wastes such as household, food and green wastes, human excreta, wastewater, agro-
processing wastes and the herein described organic matter and macro- and micronutrients can help
closing urban rural resource flows and recovery of these elements. At the same time externalities such
as greenhouse gas emissions, environmental pollution and human health burdens can be reduced.
2
In many contexts, there is potential for agricultural systems to cover their nutrient needs, at least in
parts, by the recycling of nutrients if the nutrient recirculation system would be (re)structured
appropriately toward agriculture. For example, the compost produced from urban households’ food
and green waste across the 12 African countries of this study, could theoretically supply about 31 000
t/N/year, 31 000 t/P/year, and 84 000 t/K/year which, for example, could cover 4% of N, 22% of P, and
42% of K demand of the maize cultivated in the year 2021 (calculation by the authors). When
conducting the same calculation but assuming that total households’ food and green waste including
urban and rural households is recycled, theoretically 71 000 t/year (10% of N), 71 000 t/year (51% of
P), and 141 000 t/year (71% of K) could be supplied (calculation by the authors).
Regarding agricultural by-products from processing no or only few general quantifications or
estimations exist – to our knowledge – for agricultural by-products or wastes that are produced off-
farm in the studied countries. For Ethiopia, FAO estimated unused by-products at about one
megaton/year (dry matter). Regional, urban and national assessments are needed for detailed
information.
When assessing the theoretical nutrient potential present in human waste across the 12 African
countries, the estimated nutrient quantities sum up to approximately 3.4 million t/year of NPK. In
comparison, the total imports amounted to 2.8 million tons, and the overall agricultural consumption
reached 4.4 million tons of inorganic fertilisers (NPK) within the same 12 countries in the year 2019. In
theory, the combined human waste produced in these 12 countries accounts for approximately 77%
of the current NPK nutrients consumed in agriculture within the same 12 countries. However, it is
important to note that the current application of mineral fertilisers is generally low. Recycling human
waste presents a promising way to address sanitation and agricultural demand for both organic matter
and nutrients and is hence also well aligning with the circular economy approach. However, it requires
careful planning, community engagement, appropriate technology and strong regulatory frameworks
to ensure that the benefits are maximised while minimising potential risks.
4. Challenges and opportunities for scaling the organic and biofertilisers sector
Holistic approach
To unlock farms’ inherent potential for soil fertility and overall productivity, a holistic approach is
crucial. Apart from developing OFBF value chains, this involves optimizing entire farming systems. Such
a systems approach emphasizes an integrated fertiliser strategy, with soil health as a central goal.
Research
Currently, in the majority of countries testing infrastructure is lacking, and research on OFBF is limited
due to scarce funding. Focusing on OFBF can fill a crucial gap, as current fertiliser research
predominantly centres on inorganic fertilisers, despite the potential benefits of organic alternatives.
Increased research on OFBF and soil amendments, including biochar and liming, can establish the
needed evidence base on product efficacy and will assist in developing robust standards for organic
and biofertiliser products. Scientific trials should explore the combined application of on-farm organic
matter recycling, off-farm organic fertilisers, biofertilisers, soil amendments and mineral fertilisers to
identify the most efficient strategies.
Economy and markets
The financial viability of off-farm organic fertiliser production often faces challenges due to high
production costs. However, some companies benefit from support provided by international donors
and research initiatives. Positive socio-economic impacts from OFBF use can be achieved through
centralized or decentralized organic waste collection, processing, and distribution systems –
depending on the local context. Successful OFBF businesses rely on a multi-stakeholder approach to
value chain development. Investments across the value chain are necessary, including technological
3
advancements in processing, waste collection, segregation, and efficient product distribution systems.
Ensuring product quality is crucial, given the presence of manipulated products in the market.
Knowledge, education and training
There is a weak awareness, education and training for farmers, agricultural extension services and
agro-dealers regarding the utility, handling and application of OFBF. Education and training initiatives
play a vital role to overcome cultural and traditional barriers to the adoption. Ensuring qualified
advisory services and educational staff is imperative, alongside the establishment of field
demonstrations. These measures can effectively promote awareness and understanding, facilitating
the adoption of OFBF on a wider scale.
Policies, regulations, certification
The future potential of off-farm OFBF appears promising for enhancing soil health and crop yields,
reducing environmental pollution and human health burdens, while offering employment
opportunities and additional income.
To unlock the potential of OFBF, a comprehensive policy framework must be established, addressing
environmental, urban, rural, and agronomic contexts. This framework should cover waste collection,
processing, OFBF production, marketing, distribution, quality standards, certifications, and on-farm
application. Coordination across Africa, alignment with international standards, and adherence to
continental, regional, and national policies (such as CAADP, EOA-I, or the new Soil Initiative for Africa)
are crucial. Robust monitoring and control systems are paramount to ensure compliance, avoid
contamination, and maintain continuous product quality, instilling customer confidence.
In many countries, a regulatory framework for OFBF exists; however, the subsequent application and
enforcement is lacking. Encouraging integrated policies that incorporate OFBF into existing agricultural
practices alongside inorganic inputs is vital. Policies should be consistent, well-enforced, gender-
sensitive, and adaptable to changing environments. Cross-sector collaboration is essential, aligning
sanitation, waste management, and agriculture policies to establish a circular economy.
While certain countries may have implemented some of the recommendations outlined in this report,
there remains a significant gap in the effective action needed to ensure practical application. To
effectively implement these recommendations, it is crucial to engage in further discussions and make
necessary adjustments to align with the current context, state, planning activities, and priorities within
each specific country. Interventions and necessary actions span across diverse sectors and are
interconnected, underscoring the importance of implementing them collectively for ultimate success.
Countries should develop national waste management strategies focusing on reduction, reuse, and
recycling (Triple R). Entrepreneurs can manage the waste treatment process, but policies must drive
segregation campaigns, raise awareness, and encourage public participation.
Subsidies and incentives across the OFBF value chain, including tax reductions for technologies, can
stimulate technology investment, enhance production, and facilitate market development, thereby
supporting sustainable land use and food production strategies. Policy efforts should back private
sector initiatives with sustainable financing for off-farm OFBF production, facilitate access to finance,
align with agroecology, land reform, and land tenure policies, encourage long-term farmer
investments, and establish mechanisms to regulate the market.
Being aware of the challenges faced by smallholder farmers, such as low mineral fertiliser application
rates, limited labour and financial resources, and high soil erosion, underscores the importance of
comprehensive farm-specific support activities for the successful implementation of OFBF. These
activities may include subsidies for OFBF use, ensuring accessibility, establishing acceptable pricing for
certified products, deploying appropriate technology for application, disseminating knowledge about
usage and expected impacts, addressing land tenure regulations, and exploring options for integrating
OFBF with other fertilisers.